Introduction to Accounting

Defining Accounting:

1. Quantitative information;
2. Likely financial; and
3. Useful in decision-making.

…by definition of American Institute of Certified Accountants (AICPA)

Accounting is an art, and science, of recording, classification and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transaction and events which are in part at least, of a financial character, and interpreting the results thereof.

…by definition of Philippine Institute of Certified Accountants (PICPA) 

Accounting is a service activity. Its function is to provide quantitative information, primarily financial in nature, about economic entities that is intended to be useful in making economic decisions – in making reasoned choices among alternative course of actions.

Components of Accounting

1.  Analytical – identifying process; the process of recognition or non-recognition of business activities on accountable events.
•  Accountable or Quantifiable Events – events that has an effects on assets, liabilities and equity. Only economic activities are the subject concerned by accounting.
• Economic Activity measurement of economic resources and obligations, as to an entity is called transaction.
• Classification of Transaction:
• External Transactions – or exchange transfer transactions involving one entity and another.
• Internal Transactions – economic events involving the entity itself only;
• Production – process turning resource to products, and
• Casualty – sudden unanticipated loss.
2. Technical – measuring process; the process of assigning peso amounts to transactions.
• Measurement Bases:
1. Historical Cost
2. Current Cost
3. Realizable Cost
4. Present Value
3. Formal – communicating process; process of preparing and distributing accounting reports. 

• Communication processes:

1. Recording or Journalizing;
2. Classifying or Posting; and
3. Summarizing or Preparation of Financial Statements.
• Financial Statements – documents which reports financial information about the entity to decision makers.

  

The Accounting Cycle

The repetitive steps undertaken in practice of accounting.

1. Entering Journal Entries
2. Posting to Ledger
3. Preliminary Trial Balance
4. Adjusting
5. Preparation of Financial Statements
6. Closing
7. Post-Closing Trial Balance
8. Reversing

Basic Purpose of Accounting

To supply the financial information to statement users, so that they could make informed judgments and wise decisions.

Accountancy as a Profession

Republic Act No. 9298 (Philippines Accountancy Act of 2004) is the law regulating the practice of accounting.

Board of Accountancy is the body authorized by law to promulgate rules and regulations affecting practice of accounting profession in the Philippines.

Limitations:

• shall be registered as a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) of the Philippines
• shall have been issued of a certificate of accreditation
• shall have acquired minimum of 3 years meaningful experience with practice including taxation

Accreditation:

• required to have registered to Board of Accountancy and Professional Regulation Commission (PRC)
• shall be issued of Certificate of Registration from the PRC upon favorable recommendation of Board Of Accountancy, that is valid for three (3) years

Three (3) Main Areas of Practice

1. Public Accounting
• Auditing – involves auditing of financial statements by independent CPA form purpose of expressing an opinion for fairness of preparation.
• Taxation Service – involves preparation of annual income tax returns of an entity.
• Management Advisory Services – involves providing advises on installation of computer systems, quality control, installation and modification of accounting systems, budgeting, forecasting, design or modification of retirement plans, takeovers or merges.
2. Private Accounting – with which the highest accounting office will be as Controller. This includes maintaining records, producing financial reports, preparing budgets, controlling and allocating costs, and determination of taxes to pay.
3. Government Accounting – involves receipt and disposal of government funds, focusing on administration and custody of mentioned.

Continuing Professional Education (CPE)

All CPAs shall abide by the requirements, rules and regulations on continuing professional education to be promulgated by the Board of Accountancy, subject to the approval of the Professional Regulation Commission, in coordination with the accredited national professional organization of CPAs or any duly accredited educational institutions. 

Makrong Kasanayan sa Pakikinig

Kahulugan ng Pakikinig

Ang pakikinig ay isang aktibong proseso ng pagtanggap ng mensahe sa pamamagitan ng sensoring pandinig at pag-iisip. Itinuturing itong aktibo dahil nagbibigay ito ng daan sa isang tao ng pag-isipan, tandaan at ianalisa ang kahulugan at kabuluhan ng mga salitang napakinggan.

Ang sensoring pakikinig ay nanatiling bukas at gumagana kahit pa mayroon tayong ibang ginagawa. Ang mga tunog ay nagsisilbing stimuli at dumaraan sa auditory nerve patungo sa utak.

Mga Elementong Naka—iimpluwensiya sa Pakikinig

1. Edad – Para sa mga nakababatang tagapakinig, higit na mainam ang mga maiikli at malinaw (o mababaw at madaling unawaing) mga pahayag para sa mas maikli nilang interes at kakulangan sa pang-unawa. Mainam rin ang maikling mga pahayag sa mga may edad (o nakatatanda), bilang konsiderasyon sa mga nararamdaman nila sa kanilang mga katawan, katulad ng rayuma at kahinaan na rin sa pandinig.
2. Oras – Malaki ang ipinagkaiba ng pakikinig sa hatinggabi, madaling araw at kinahapunan, kaysa sa pakikinig ng isang indibidwal sa oras kung kailan mas gising ang kaniyang kamalayan.
3. Kasarian – Madalas na magkaiba ang interes at paraan ng pagsasalita ng kababaihan sa kalalakihan. Ang mga kababaihan ay madalas na maligoy at mapaliwanag, samantalang ang mga kalalakihan naman ay higit na matipid sa salita at pagpapaliwanag. Malaki ang epekto nito sa pakikinig, gayong ang mga kalalakihan ay madaling mainip, kabaliktaran ng mga kababaihan na likas na mas mahaba ang pasensiya.
4. Tsanel – Malaki ang impluwensiya ng instrumentong ginagamit sa pakikipag-usap sa pagkaka-unawaan. Sa paggamit na lamang ng telepono, kung minsan ay nagiging hadlang ang signal sa linaw ng pagsasalita, kaya naman hindi nagiging lubusan ang pagkaka-unawa ng tumatanggap ng tawag.
5. Kultura – Nag-iiba ang wika sa pagkakaiba-iba ng kultura, gayundin ay nag-iiba-iba ang nagiging kawilihan at interes ng tagapakinig.
6. Konsepto sa Sarili – Ang pansariling pang-unawa o pagka-alam ng tagakinig ay maaring makapagbigay ng hindi kaparehong pakahulugan ng sa nagsasalita kaya naman ito ay maaring humantong mula sa mainam na diskurso sa hindi mainam na katapusan.
7. Lugar – Ang kapaligiran ay may malaking epekto sa paghikayat sa mga tagapakinig sa higit na pagkakaroon ng interes sa nagsasalita. Kung masyadong mainit, maingay o magulo at maingay sa paligid, mas malaki ang posibilidad na mawala ang kosentrasyon ng tagapakinig, kaya mainam na maging bukas ang isipan sa kapaligiran – pumili ng mga lugar na tahimik at magiging komportable ang mga tagapakinig upang masiguro ang paglago ng interes at pagpapataas ng kosentrasyon.

Proseso ng Pakikinig

Ang pakikinig ay isang komplikadong proseso na nag-uugnat sa sistemang apektibo at kognitibo at sa pag-uugali at nakagawian ng tagapakinig.

1. Pagtanggap ng mensahe – Nakasalalay ang pakikinig sa pagtanggap ng mensahe, gayundin ang pagbibigay tugon at pagkatuto. Kung hindi mainam ang pagtanggap ng mensahe ng tagapakinig makaaapekto ito sa pagka-unawa ng mensahe at pagka-alam ng sinasabi.
2. Pagpokus ng atensyon sa tinanggap sa mensahe – Hindi nangangahulugan na nauunawaan ng tagapakinig ang mensahe dahil lamang sa narinig niya ito, malaki ang impluwensiya ng atensyon o pokus na inilagay ng tagapakinig sa mensahe upang lubos niya itong maunawaan.
3. Pagpapakahulugan – Nakadepende ang pagbibigay ng positibo o negatibong interpretasyon o kahulugan ng mensahe sa pagkakahatid o pagkakasabi nito.
4. Pagtanda sa narinig – Mainam na making muna, kaysa makipagtalo sa nagsasalita upang maging mas epektibo ang pakikinig. Sa ganitong paraan, higit na mauunawaan ng nakikinig ang mensahe at magiging mas madali na matandaan niya ito.
5. Pagtugon – Dito lubusang nasusubok ang pagiging epektibo ng paghahatid ng mensahe. Sa bahaging ito maaring manghingi ng paglilinaw ang tagapakinig sa mga parte ng mensahe na para sa kaniya ay malabo, o hindi gaanong malinaw. Gayundin, maaring magbigay ang tagapakinig ng pansarili niyang reaksyon sa mensahe.

Mga Uri ng Pakikinig

1. Deskriminatibo – may layunin na matukoy ang pagkakaiba ng pasalita sa di-pasalitang paraan ng komunikasyon, katulad ng paraan ng pagsasalita, mga pagkilos at pagkumpas.
2. Komprehensibo – nakatuon sa nilalaman o koteksto ng mensahe kaysa sa nagpapahayag nito, ang pokus ng tagapakinig ng ganitong uri ay sa kung paano higit na mauunawan at sa kung ano ang kahulugan ng mensahe.
3. Paglilibang – ginagawa ang pakikinig na ganito sa layong maglibang, o magdala ng kaaliwan para sa sarili, katulad ng pakikinig sa radyo o pakikinig ng musika.
4. Paggamot – sa ganitong uri, layon ng tagapakinig na dinggin ang mga hinaing o suliranin ng nagsasalita upang makapagbigay kagaanan ng loob (o makapaggamot) gawa ng pakikisimpatiya at pagdamay.
5. Kritikal – ang ganitong uri ng pakikinig ay gumagamit ng malalim na pag-aanalisa at pag-iisip upang makabuo ng mainam na hinuha, o reaksyon.

Gabay sa Mabisang Pakikinig

1. Bumuo ng layunin sa pakikinig.
2. Ituon ang pakikinig sa pangunahing at mahahalagang puntos na ibinibigay ng nagsasalita.
3. Itala ang mga mahahalagang detalye.
4. Pakinggang maigi ang mga nilalaman ng mensahe, at hindi ang paraan ng pagsasalita.
5. Isantabi ang paghuhusga at panlulubak sa panlabas na katangian ng nagsasalita, at pagtuunan ng pansin ang nilalaman ng mensahe.
6.  Sikaping maging sensitibo sa verbal at di-verbal na konteksto ng mensahe.
7. Tiyakin kung tama ang pagkaunawa sa mga narinig, gawin ito sa pamamagitan ng paglilinaw sa mga malalabong nilalaman ng mensahe.
8. Laging isaisip na isang paghamon ang mabilis na pagkatuto sa pamamagitan ng mabisang pakikinig.

Mga Kabutihang Maidudulot ng Aktibong Pakikinig

• Makinig at pahalagahan ang sinasabi ng kapwa upang mapaamo ang matigas ng damdamin.
• Madaling mauunawan ang posisyon ng iba kung mataimtim ang pakikinig.
• Maiiwasan ang mga negatibong pagpuna kung ginagamit ang pakikinig sa wastong paraan.
• Mawawala ang puwang ng di-pagkakaunawaan o di-pagkakasundo kung nakikinig sa bawat nagsasalita.
• Madaling matutulungan ang kapwa sa pamamagitan ng pakikinig.
• Matutuklasan ang mga kahinaan ng bawat isa tungo sa pagbabago sapagkat masusuri at maaanalisa ang mga kahinaan sa pamamagitan ng masusing pakikinig.

Mga Hadlang sa Pakikinig

1. Pagbuo ng maling kaisipan – Dahil sa pagbuo ng maling kaisipan bago pa man matapos ang paghahatid ng mensahe, hindi nagiging lubos ang pagkaalam at pagka-unawa sa nilalaman nito, gawa ng higit na pokus sa mga suliranin nakikita ng nakikinig kaysa sa sinasai ng nagsasalita, kaya naman nagkakaroon ng mga maling reaksyon at pagtugon sa panig ng tagakapakinig.
2. Pagkiling sa sariling opiniyon – Dahil sa kakulangan ng pang-unawa at saradong isipan, napapaibabaw ng mga tagapakinig ang pansariling opiniyon kaysa sa mensahe na inihahatid ng nagsasalita.
3. Pagkakaiba-iba ng pakahulugan – Maaring magkakaiba ang pagkaka-unawa at pagbibigay interpretasyon ng mga tagapakinig sa iisang mensahe, kaya naman mahalaga ang paglilinaw sa mga mensahe.
4. Pisikal na dahilan – katulad ng unang nabanggit, malaki ang impluwensiya ng kapaligiran sa pakikinig ng mensahe, maaring hadlangan ng klima o kaguluhan ng paligid ang pokus at kamalayan ng tagapakinig upang Ganap na maunawaan ang mensahe.
5. Pagkakaiba ng kultura – Dala ng pagkakaiba-iba ng paniniwala sa pagkakaiba-iba ng kultura, maaring hindi matanggap ng tagapakinig ang mensahe gawa kaibang paniniwala o paninidigan.
6. Suliraning pansarili – Gawa ng pamamayani ng damdaming pansarili at personal, nababawasan ang pokus ng nakikinig, kaya naman hindi lubos na nauunawaan ang mensahe.

Pinagkunan: Mangahis, J. (n.d.). Komunikasyon sa Akademikong Filipino.

Knowing More of Psychology

History of Psychology

Other Pioneers in Psychology:

Aristotle	Father of Psychology; along with the great philosophers of Ancient Greece of 4th and 5th century  BC – Socrates, Plato and others
Rene Descartes	Believes in the nativist view that human capabilities are inborn
John Locke	Believes in the enmpiricist view that knowledge is acquired through experience
Wilhelm Wundt	Father of Modern Psychology and Experimental; and also, founded academic discipline of psychology in 1879
G. Stanley Hall	Established the first psychological lab in the United States
James McKeen Cattell	First professor of Psychology
Sir Francis Galton	Studied individual differences as of 1869

Development of Psychology in the Philippines

University of Sto. Tomas (UST) and University of San Carlos in Cebu	First institution to offer Psychology in the 17th century
Virgilio Enriquez	Father of Philippine Psychology
Agustin Alonzo	First Filipino Psychologist
Sinforoso Padilla	First to major Psychology from Undergraduate to Doctoral studies
Jesus Perfunian	Set up Far Eastern University (FEU) Psychological Clinic
Angel De Blas	Established Experimental Psychology Lab at UST
Estefania Aldaba Um	First Filipino to receive PhD in Clinical Psychology from University of Michigan
Alfred Lagmay	University of the Philippines (UP) Psychology Department Chairman for 22 years
Jaime Balatad	Established the Psychology Department at Ateneo De Manila

School of Thought in Psychology - a group of people who band together with a stand on how we should understand behavior

Structuralism elaborated by Edward Tiechner with the goal of specifying mental structures and analyzing the basic elements of conscious experience and mental structure.

Introspection self-analysis

Functionalism led by William James, studies how the mind work so that an organism can adapt to and function in its environment.

Psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud, believes that human behavior is governed by unconsciousness.

Behaviorism by John B. Watson, believes that psychological data must be open to public inspection like scientific data as observable.

Gestalt Psychology by Max Wertheimer, believes that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY

Biological concerned with neurological processes

Behavioral considers on external activities

Cognitive concerned with mental processes

Psychoanalytic states that behavior stems from the unconscious processes

Phenomenological focuses on subjective personal experience of events and motivation towards self-actualization

Introduction to Marketing

What is Marketing?

Marketing is managing profitable customer relationships.  The goal of this twofold goal of marketing is to attract customers by promising superior value and keep and grow current customers by delivering satisfaction.

MARKETING DEFINED

Today, marketing must be understood not in the old sense of making a sale - " telling and selling" - but in a new sense of satisfying customer needs - making selling unnecessary.

Marketing is the process by which companies create value for customers and build strong customer relationships in order to capture value from customers in return.

MARKETING PROCESS

Understanding the Marketplace and Customer Needs

“The company must fully understand consumers and the marketplace in which it operates"

FIVE CORE CUSTOMER AND MARKETPLACE CONCEPTS

1.     Needs - state of felt deprivation, which includes physical needs such as food, clothing, warmth and safety, social needs for belonging and affection, and individual needs for knowledge and self-expression.

Wants - the form human needs take as they are shaped by culture and individual personality

Demand - human wants that are backed by buying power

2.      Market offerings| Products, Services and Experiences - combination of products, services - activities or benefits offered for sale that are essentially intangible and do not result in the ownership of anything, information, or experiences offered to a market to satisfy a need or want

More broadly, market offerings also include other entities, such as persons, places, organizations, information, and ideas.

3.      Value and Satisfaction - satisfied customers buy again and tell others about their good experiences, dissatisfied customers often switch to competitors and disparage the product to others.

4.      Exchange and Relationships - the act of obtaining a desired object from someone by offering something in return, and maintaining profitable relationship through consistently delivering superior customer value.

5.      Markets - set of all actual and potential buyers of a product or service sharing a particular need or want that can be satisfied through exchange relationships.

“In today's digital technologies, from Web sites and online social networks to cell phones, have empowered consumers and made marketing a truly interactive affair.”

 Marketers no longer asking only - 'How can we reach our customers?', but also - 'How should our customers reach us?'.

Designing a Customer-Driven Marketing Strategy

“After fully understanding consumers and the marketplace, it must decide which customers it will serve and how it will bring them value."

MARKETING MANAGEMENT - the art and science of choosing target markets and building profitable relationships with them

The marketing manager's aim is to find, attract, keep, and grow target customers by creating, delivering and communicating superior customer value.

To design a winning marketing strategy, the marketing manager would need to answer two important questions: What customers will we serve? (What's our target market?) and How can we serve these customers best? (What's our value proposition?).

SELECTING CUSTOMERS TO SERVE

Market Segmentation - dividing market into segments of customers to decide which among these segments should be targeted and served

Marketing managers must decide which customers they want to target and on level, timing, and nature of their demand. Simply put, marketing management is  customer management and demand management.

What is CUSTOMER MANAGEMENT? And DEMAND MANAGEMENT?

CHOOSING VALUE PROPOSITION (Differentiation and Positioning of the Company)

A brand value proposition is the set of the benefits or values it promises to deliver to customers to satisfy their needs. This differentiates one brand from another. They answer the question Why should I buy your brand than a competitor's?, strong value propositions give the greatest advantage in their target market.

MARKETING MANAGEMENT ORIENTATION (Five Alternative Concepts)

1.      Production Concept - the idea that consumers will favor products that are available and highly affordable and that the organization should therefore focus on improving production and distribution efficiency.

2.      Product Concept - the idea that consumers will favor products that offer the most quality, performance, and features and that the organization should therefore devote its energy to making continuous product improvements.

3.      Selling Concept - the idea that consumers will not buy enough the firm's products unless it undertakes a large-scale selling and promotion efforts.

4.      Marketing Concept - a philosophy that holds that achieving goals depends on knowing the needs and wants of target markets and delivering the desired satisfactions better than competitors do.

5.      Societal Marketing Concept - the idea that a company's marketing decisions should consider consumer's wants, the company's requirements, consumers' long-run interests, and society's long-run interests.

Preparing an Integrated Marketing Plan and Program

“Now, the company develops marketing plans and programs - a marketing mix - that will actually deliver the intended customer value."

MARKETING MIX - set of marketing tools the firms uses to implement its marketing strategy, classified into four broad groups, called four P's of marketing: product, price, place, and promotion.

The firms must blend each marketing mix tool into a comprehensive integrated marketing program that communicates and delivers that intended value to chosen customers.

Building Customer Relationships

“Now, the company develops marketing plans and programs - a marketing mix - that will actually deliver the intended customer value."

CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT - the overall process of building and maintaining profitable customer relationships by delivering superior customer value and satisfaction.

CUSTOMER-PERCEIVED VALUE - the customer's evaluation of the difference between all the benefits and all the costs of a marketing offer relative to those of competing offer.

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION - the extent to which a product's perceived performance matches a buyer's expectations.

Source: (2012). P. Kotler, Principles of Marketing (14th ed.). Pearson Education, Incorporated.

Introduction to Organizational Behavior

What is Organizational Behavior?

Organization Behavior is field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, group and structure have a behavior within the organization for improving effectiveness.

It is the study of behavior, not only of manager, but also employers given factors that influences such behavior within the organization itself – given that every employee is a unique individual.

“Organizational Behavior goals –explain, predict and control behavior”

 

Contributing Disciplines to Organizational Behavior Field:

1.      Psychology

a.      Learning

b.      Motivation

c.       Personality

d.      Emotion

e.      Perception

f.        Training

g.      Leadership effectiveness

h.      Job satisfaction

i.        Individual decision making

j.        Performance appraisal

k.      Attitude measurement

l.        Employee selection

m.    Work design

n.      Work stress

2.      Sociology

a.      Group dynamics

b.      Work teams

c.       Communications

d.      Power

e.      Conflict

f.        Integrated behavior

g.      Formal organizational theory

h.      Organizational technology

i.        Organizational change

j.        Organizational culture

3.      Social Psychology

a.      Behavioral change

b.      Attitude change

c.       Communication

d.      Group process

e.      Group decision making

4.      Anthropology

a.      Comparative values

b.      Comparative attitudes

c.       Cross-cultural analysis

d.      Organizational culture

e.      Organizational environment

5.      Political Science

a.      Conflict

b.      Intra-organizational politics

c.       Power

Challenges and Opportunities for Organizational Behavior:

1.      Responding to Globalization

2.      Managing workforce diversity

3.      Improving quality and productivity

4.      Responding to labor shortages

5.      Improving customer services

6.      Improving people’s skills

7.      Empowering people

8.      Coping temporariness

9.      Stimulating Innovation

10. Helping employees’ work and life conflicts

11. Improving ethical behavior